Glossary of Terms
Words and phrases used in the website
updated: 1sth November 2006
More words to be added : Under construction
AHIMSA : Meaning 'non-harming', 'non-violence', thus is a central concept of Hindu & Jain morality & the ideal, though not usually the term is also important in BUDDHISM [SILA]. Jainism carried it furthest: JAINS seek to avoid harming even invisible forms of life. Its development in HINDUISM, in particular the rejection of Vedic animal sacrifice & the widespread adoption of vegetarianism was probably influenced by the other two religions, though it was clearly part of a general tendency in Indian culture. The ahimsa ideal seems to have spread through society from the BRAHMANS to the lower VARNAS, leading to the low status of those whose caste duties [DHARMA] involved killing, such as butchers & fishermen. For the KSHATRIYAS there was tension between this ideal & their duty to protect the state as warriors & rulers. In practice ahimsa did not rule out, for Hindu kings & law-givers, recourse to war, capital punishment or judicial torture. Now, however, complete abstention from violence is seen as the ideal for all Hindus & in this form, mainly through the influence of Gandhi, the concept of ahimsa has influenced pacifist thinking throughout the world.
COW : For Hindus the killing of a cow is a serious crime. The ARTHA-shastra refers to the killing of cattle as a crime worthy of death, but this may refer only to royal cattle. Nevertheless, reverence for the cow [whose five products; milk, curd, butter, urine & dung are regarded as purifiers] has grown steadily from the of the BHAGAVADGITA to the extent that Gandhi [1869-1948] regarded it as a part of the essence of Hinduism.
DA'WAH : Arabic word meaning 'call' or 'invitation' often calling someone to Islam & thus translated as ‘mission’. It is also used to mean 'propaganda', that is, an 'invitation' in a political context. The basic sense of da'wa is present in the Noble Qur'an [16-25]: "Invite [everyone] to the way of your Lord with Wisdom & Good Counsel." The impact of da'wa throughout the Muslim world has been felt mainly by Muslims themselves, who have been urged by their leaders & Scholars to be more fervent in their faith in the face of the challenge of secularism.
DIN : The term used in ISLAM for 'religion' in general, so that one can have the din of Islam or earlier dins [the ahl al-Kitab: Judaism & Christianity] before the revelation of the faith. The term has connotations of indebtedness & obligation, i.e. of the believer’s duties towards Allah. In Islamic Theology, din comprehends both faith, iman & the practice of prescriptions of the law, the Shari'ah [Islamic Sacred Law] & is often contrasted with the dunya, the sphere of worldly life [or secular life].
DUALISM
[1] As a world-view, the belief that the 'real' is of two kinds or in two ultimate controlling powers. Thus, metaphysical dualism [MONISM] may oppose matter to SPIRIT, while dualistic religion involves belief in two eternally conflicting principles. Modified dualism holds God to be ambivalent, both benevolent & malevolent.
[2] A view of man as consisting of two substances, physical [flesh, body] & mental or spiritual [mind, soul, spirit].
ENLIGHTENMENT :The Enlightenment was a European intellectual movement of the 18th century with its roots in 17th century ideas in science & philosophy, especially the philosophy of John Locke [1632-1704], including his thoughts on the relation of reason to religion. The most important German Enlightenment figure was Immanuel Kant [1724-1804], philosopher, critic of religion & champion of rational autonomy over against the heteronomy of traditional religion. David Hume also reflected at least the religious views of the movement, while being critical of reliance on human reason. The basic aim of the Enlightenment thinkers was to achieve autonomy for human thought & tolerance for individual perspectives. By comparison, 'fundamentalist interpretation of the bible was a milestone around the neck of the defenders of revelation’. Many of the 19th century's controversies regarding critical studies of the Christian Bible & attacks on the questionable morality of much Christian dogma bear the influence of the Enlightenment. Traditionalists still regret the influence of the Enlightenment & regard it as an attack on piety, traditional ecclesiastical authority & simple devotion. In many ways its influence is still not fully realized in the life of European states & the USA in matters relating to religion & political power & public morality, the modernising of religion itself, the relationships between races & the freedom of expression & orientation in private & public life.
FESTIVALS [HINDU]: The Hindu religious & ceremonial year is based on lunar months, each of 30 lunar days [tithi] divided into two fortnights [paksha or pak]: the dark or waning fortnight [Krishna paksha or badi] which begins after the full-moon day [purnima] & the bright or waxing fortnight [shukla paksha or shudi], which begins after the new-moon day [amavasya]. In some regions [the south, Bengal, Maharashtra & Gujurat], the month begins with the bright half; in others [Uttar Pradesh, etc], it begins with the dark half, which makes for a lack of correspondence in the names of the months in which the dark halves fall. In order to keep broadly in line with the solar year, every 30 months a leap month is added.
Many Hindu festivals take their names from the Sanskrit ordinals which give their date in the month. Thus Rama navami is RAMA’S ninth, which refers to the ninth day of the bright fortnight of Cait on which Rama’a birthday is celebrated. Jamashtami is the birth eighth [of Krishna], that is, the eighth day of dark fortnight of Bhado on which Krishna’s birthday is celebrated. The major religious occasions of the Hindu year follow below, giving the months according to Uttar Pradesh usage.
Cait: shudi 1 is the start of the lunar year, which is celebrated variously as such; shudi 9 is Rama's birthday; shudi 1-10 is one of two periods of navaratra, nine nights, devoted to the Goddess; the full-moon day, purnima, is Hanuman jayanti, the birthday of Hanuman the monkey diety. Besakh: shudi 3 is the Akshaya tritiya or Akti festival, which is the start of the agricultural year & auspicious for starting new enterprises; it is also the birthday of Parashurama, the sixth Avatara of Vishnu; shudi 14 is the birthday of Narasimha, the man-lion avatara of Vishnu. Jeth: shudi 13 to purnima is a three-day fast observed by women to ensure conjugal happiness, ending with the worship of Savitri. Asharh: shudi 2 is ratha yatra, the Chariot Journey, which celebrates Krishna as Jagannath, Lord of the World, renowned from the ceremonies at the temple complex in Puri, Orissa; shudi 11 is Devashayani, when the Gods go to sleep & also the start of caturmasa, the four months to katik shudi 11, which is the period for fasts & austerities, the manner of their observance depending on the tradition & affiliations of the families concerned; it is also one of two days on which the Varkari pilgrims in Maharashtra hope to reach the temple of Vitthala (a alleged manifestation of Vishnu) at Pandharpur, the other being the last day of caturmasa. Savan: shudi 5 is Naga pancami, celebrated in honour of the serpent deities of mythology & also to seek protection against snake-bites; purnima is the festival of raksha bandana, the tying of amulets to seek brotherly protection. Bhado: badi 8 is Janmashtami, the birthday of Krishna; shudi 3 is Hartalika or Parvati's festival, which is an important fast day for women: for the married, for the health & prosperity of their husbands, for the unmarried, for obtaining a husband; shudi 4 is the first of ten days for the worship of Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity who removes difficulties; shudi 7-9 is devoted to the worship of Gauri (Parvati), usually by the lady of the household; shudi 14 is dedicated to Vishnu as Ananta, the eternal preserver. Kvar: badi is pitri paksha, the fortnight of the fathers, when food offerings are made, ideally by the eldest male, to the departed up to three generations, the ninth being reserved for the female departed; shudi 1-9 is the second navaratra devoted to the Goddess, with Durga Puja occurring on shudi 8; in the north, Ramalilas, portraying the triumph of Rama over Ravana, are enacted during navaratra, concluding, together with the Goddess worship, on the 10th, Dasara or Dassahra, which is a major festival; purnima is a festival called kojagara devoted to Lakshmi. Katik: badi 13, known as 'wealth's 13', is the start of the four or five days of Divali, the festival of lamps; badi 14 celebrates Krishna's victory over the demon Naraka with a day of festivities & the lighting of oil lamps in the evening; the new-moon day, amavasya, is for Lakshmi puja & the end of the financial year; shudi 1 is Divali itself, a day auspicious for new beginnings & the start of the new financial year, celebrated with festivities & present-giving; shudi 2 is the day brothers should visit sisters; shudi 11 is the last day of the austerities of chaturmasa, the day the gods reawaken & the second pilgrimage for the Varkari pilgrims to Pandharpur to worship Vitthala; purnima is known as tripurni purnima & is both a Shaivite & a Krishnaite festival. Pus: sometime in this month, always on solar 14 January, is makara samkranti, known as Pongol in the south, which marks the entry of the sun into Capricorn & is a particularly important day for ritual bathing, especially at Prayag. Magh is the important month for ritual bathing, especially purnima, & many melas (fairs) take place during it. Phagun: badi 14 is mahashivaratri, the night of shiva, a major shaivite festival; purnima is Holi & the bonfire is lit in the evening; the following day, Chait badi 1, there is the throwing of coloured powder & the general mood of licence for which this final festival of the year is famous.
Fire [Zoroastrian] : One of the seven creations of Ahura Mazda, protected by the Amesha Spenta of righteousness. Fire in all its forms, from the sun to the household fire, is sacred. The living warmth of the element of fire is thought to pervade all other creations. It has a unique ritual place in Zoroastrianism, much of which derives from its role in Indo-Iranian tradition, as recipient of the sacrificial offering & conveyor of it to the gods. Prayers were addressed to the fire itself. In ancient times ritual offerings were made to the household fire but in Archaemenid times the temple cult of fire was introduced. It is the fire, not the temple, which is the focus for worship. Fires may be removed from temple to temple, but they may not be extinguished. The three most famous ancient fires were those of Farnbag, Gushnasp & Burzenmihr. All were centres of pilgrimage. Gushnasp was the object of lavish royal patronage & the only one whose ruins have been identified.
In modern Zoroastrianism, especially among the Parsis, temples have become increasingly important as they provide pure shrines for the sacred fires. Ritual fires are consecrated for private devotion & they are used in higher liturgies, but they are not used for congregational worship. Essentially temples consist of a sanctuary for the fire, a prayer-room, & a separate room for the higher liturgies. There is no distinctive architectural style. The highest grade of fire is Atash Bahram, the installation of which is so complex that it takes a year. Once installed it is enthroned & served with royal dignity. Two such temples exist in Iran, eight in India. The second grade is the Adaran fire, which is used in 'ordinary' temples, often called by the Persian name dar-i-mihr, or in India by the Gujarati term Agiary, meaning 'house of fire'. The lowest grade of fire, dadgah, can burn in the home but if it burns in a temple then it, like the others, must be ritually tended. The differences between the grades of ritual fires are determined by the rites of consecration. Worshipping before the fire, considered the son or representative of God, Zoroastrians believe they are standing in the presence of God. A fire is present at all Zoroastrian rites. The daily devotions of Zoroastrians in the temple consist basically of individual 'pilgrimage' in a state of purity & after the kusti prayers. In the prayer room the worshipper pays respect to, prays & meditates before the fire burning in the clay or metal vessels, sometimes rather inaccurately referred to as 'fire altars'. The fire is 'fed' five times a day with sandalwood by the priest in the boy ceremony, at each of the five gahs. The burning sandalwood & frankincense add a aroma to the powerful visual imagery & intense personal experience of worship in the temple. The layperson cannot tend a fire in the temple, but may theoretically do so at home. The requirements of the purity laws make it practically impossible for Zoroastrians to keep a permanently burning fire at home; instead, may burn a divo, a glass container with oil & wick giving a small burning light.