Unity of Religions
THE TRANSCENDENTAL UNITY OF RELIGIONS FROM AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Introduction
Transcendental Unity of World Religions
Misconception of the Term Islam
Exclusivism
ii. Tawhid as the Bedrock of Islam
i. Acceptance of Plurality in Human Societies
In general no religion/faith teaches evil to its followers. Most religions/faiths disseminate good values to their adherents. However it should not be inferred from this premise that all religions are valid, revealed or representing the eternal truth. If man is created by an Almighty & Merciful God who cares for the righteous way in which he should conduct his life on earth, then He must have provided him with a set of teachings to do that. Thus it is God alone who has the full right to prescribe & determine the knowledge He reveals about His nature & the way His slaves should worship Him. It is only He who sends down the teachings that regulate the ethical life of humans & the way they should manage their way of life.
Unlike other religions Islam did not go through the so-called historical process of reification. Islam, since the time it was revealed to the final Prophet [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam], was already perfected from the very beginning requiring no historical explanation and evaluation in terms of the place it occupied and the role it played within the process of development. All the essentials of religion, that is, the name, the faith and practice, the ritual, the creed and system of beliefs were conferred by Revelation and exemplified by Prophet Muhammad [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam], throughout his life-time. Some modern scholars and orientalists have capitalized on the fact that nearly all religions, irrespective of their content, propagate good deeds and prohibit evil doings, to develop an erroneous conception that at all religions come from the same source and hence though they may look externally different, they are in fact internally only various faces of the same reality. They are all valid and that at a transcendental level there would be no difference between them. This is what is known as the belief of the transcendental unity of religions. This paper is written to argue against this belief and to expose its flaws from an Islamic point of view.
The theory of the Transcendental Unity of Religions [TUR] is related to the concept of religious pluralism. They view that all religions are equal but use the various approaches to arrive at the Truth. This subject is of immediate relevance and urgency as it embraces not only the relationship between the Muslims and non-Muslims but also it poses serious challenge to the Islamic faith of the Muslims. Hence, it requires proper response from Islamic perspective. On the other end the crux of religions is peace, harmony and balance not violence and aggression. Unfortunately due to some of the propagator of wars and violence religion has been misconstrued. Under the name of Islam some groups of Muslims have abused the concept of Jihad which originally is to establish justice to the extreme.
The Transcendental Unity of World Religions
As a form of religious pluralism the theory of the Transcendental Unity of World Religions [TUR] is an extreme attempt to bring about some form of unity between the many diverse religions in a universal form. The advocators of this religious movement claim that externally all religions are different but internally they are the same. Thus, according to them transcendent unity of religions refers to the unity of religions at this internal, formless, inward and esoteric level, or what they call the 'transcendent'. All religions according to them ultimately come from one single source, the Absolute, the Real ultimate.
According to them the existence of various religions only constitutes variant conceptions and perceptions of, and responses to, this one Ultimate divine reality. Since all religions come from one source, each religion contains within itself a measure of the absolute truth and at the same time is a valid method and means for the attainment of that truth. Therefore all religions share equal validity. Since, as they claim all religions are equally valid and true, no one has the right to condemn or degrade a religion other than his own. Thus transcendentalism teaches that every religion is equally right. They consider the variety of world's religions as alternative ways or means along which men and women can find salvation, spiritual liberation, fulfillment and happiness provided they live and practice their own respective religions wholeheartedly and sincerely.
This belief was unfortunately accepted by a number of Muslim scholars who were inappropriately convinced that this is the true tolerant position of Islam towards the people of the book and other religious faiths.
Ancient and modern Muslim scholars have indicted this extreme non-judgmental outlook to religion that unites those who worship idols and animals with those who worship God. However, in our contemporary time, al-Attas stands as one of the strongest critics of this deviance. In his monumental work, Prolegomena he clearly and convincingly shows that this claim springs from a misconception of Islamic metaphysics, particularly that which is based on wahdat al-wujud.
Misconception of the Term Islam
Some orientalists and supporters of this modern concept of transcendent unity of religions have deliberately limited Islam to mean only submission in its general sense thus ignoring all the other meanings such as it being the name as well as the definition of the religion revealed to Prophet Muhammad [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam], as well as other significations. Since all religions submit to God or to some other deity in some way or the other, then, according to them, all religions are transcendentally united. This approach logically involves shirk, a dangerous attitude of mind which the Qur'an vehemently rejects. Moreover, the same approach leads to the misconception that Islam, understood as submission, is the umbrella for all other religions, and as such it awakens another state of mind that represents the medieval idea of a privileged group. For the defenders of this approach argue that it is only the very few who can transcend the exoteric differences between religions to arrive at the esoteric unity of all religious forms in their generic essence. This statement is clearly reflected in the writings of Frithjof Schuon, as introduced by Huston Smith in which the latter affirms that:
There is a unity at the heart of religions. More than moral it is theological, but more than theological it is metaphysical in the precise sense of the word earlier noted: that which transcends the manifest world. The fact that it is thus transcendent, however, means that it can be univocally described by none and concretely apprehended by few. For this few the problem of the relation between religions is, by it, solved; for the many the generic is abstract and the concrete is not generic, and only what is concrete can be loved and worshipped.
Drawing a line between the esoteric and the exoteric Schuon maintains that there is no fundamental distinction between religions. Commenting on this view Huston Smith says:
It is not, so to speak, a line that, reappearing, divides religion's great historical manifestations vertically, Hindus from Buddhists from Christians from Muslims, and so on. The dividing line is horizontal and occurs but once, cutting across the historical religions. Above the line lies esoterism, below it exoterism ...religions are alike at heart or in essence read ["esoterically"] while differing in form ["exoterically"].
Hasan Askari for instance, mistakenly equates the spiritual experience of the Prophet, [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam] i.e., the experience of the Oneness of God with the mystical experience of Buddha.
On the other hand, al-Attas argues that:
We do not admit in the case of Islam of a horizontal dividing line separating the exoteric from the esoteric understanding of the Truth in religion. We maintain rather a vertical line of continuity from the exoteric to the esoteric; a vertical line of continuity which we identify as the Straight Path of Islam-iman-Ihsan without there being any inconsistency in the three stages of the spiritual ascent such that the Reality or transcendent Truth that is recognized and acknowledged is in our case accessible to many.
In refusing to accept the meaning of the word Islam as the name of the religion revealed to Prophet Muhammad [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam] and practically limiting it to a vague concept of submission, Cantwell Smith and such scholars as Frithjof Schoun and Jane Smith wish to bring Islam under their broad umbrella of the unity of religions.
Against this conviction we maintain that there is no evolutionary process as far as the understanding of the concept of Islam is concerned. Unlike other religions Islam did not go through the so-called historical process of reification. Islam, since the time it was revealed to the Final Prophet [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam], was already perfected from the very beginning requiring no historical explanation and evaluation in terms of the place it occupied and the role it played within the process of development. All the essentials of religion, that is, the name, the faith and practice, the ritual, the creed and system of belief were conferred by Revelation and exemplified by Prophet Muhammad [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam] throughout his life-time. [al-Maidah: 5].
Islam is both exclusive and inclusive. The exclusive aspect of Islam covers theological or metaphysical matters, articles of faith, the rituals, etc., known as the verticals or intra-personal dimension of religion, i.e., the faith dimension. This immutable aspect of Islam cannot be negotiated and be compromised.
i-The Nature of God in Islam
Although the recognition of the existence of some form of a Supreme Being is common to almost all religions, it does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that these religions are equally valid and/or bear the same degree of truth. Though acknowledging God as the Creator of the world is professed by many religions, this general belief is distorted by their conceptual system and worldview from which the nature of God is developed and understood. To some God is a far away "pie in the sky" that has no direct relationship with its creatures. To others God is symbolized by an animal, an idol or a human being that they worship.
According to al-BÊrËnÊ (d. 443 / 1051), a renowned scholar of world religions, there are two categories of religions, i.e., 1. al-Haqq [the Truth] or Islam, and 2. al-kufr [rejection of or deviation from the Truth], or al-Inhiraf [alteration of the Truth]. This is particularly true, for the Hadith clarifies that the disbelivers [kuffar] i. e., those who are not Muslims are in one category namely millat al-wahidah.
In fact, the diversity between Islam and other religions is, therefore, not merely a matter of form, for the differences in the form implies the differences in the conception of God, His Essence, Attributes and Names and Acts. This differences expressed in the concept of tawhid.
As al-Attas argued that:
"the form which is the manner of institution of belief and faith, the manner of expression of the law, the manner of religious attitude and ethical moral conduct - the manner in which submission to God is enacted in our life, is expressed by the concept of millah."
The nature of God as understood in Islam is quite different from the nature of God as understood in all other religions and global worldviews. Neither the Greeks in the zenith of their philosophical edification, nor their modern cultural inheritors of the contemporary western philosophical and scientific tradition, nor the eastern mystical religions have any conception of God that is the same as to that offered by Islam. Thus it is both misguided and irrational to look for superficial similarities between different conceptions of God in Islam and other religions in order to advocate a new 'transcendental' belief in the unity of all religions. That is so because each religion has its own conceptual system and worldview from which the nature of God is developed and understood. Hence it is not justifiable for any religious system to claim that it possesses the same conception of God's nature as that of Islam, whether exoterically or esoterically; whether it stays on earth or it transcends itself to any spiritual level!
Furthermore, the conception of the nature of God in Islam is the completion of what has been revealed to the Prophet according to the Qur'an. God is one in His essence; He is one in His Attributes and he is one in His actions.
Relying in this manner on the Qur'anic idea of God as also represented in the Ahadith, al-Attas points out that God is always in act, not static like the Aristotelian First Mover. He is engaged in a continuous and perpetual creative activity without Himself changing. This creation is not emanation as held by the Neoplatonists, but rather bringing forth into external existence the ideal realities that pre-exist in His Knowledge. His creation is thus "a single act repeated in an eternal process", though what are created in this process are not themselves eternal, they are rather originated in new yet similar guises in discrete durations of existence.
The reality of existence is the manifestation of the Aspect of God. This universe comes into existence by the creative acts of God through His perpetual creation. The whole cosmos is in the state of perishing and is a new creation all the time. Though things seem to be the same at all times, in reality they are not; they are rather in a state of constant renewal by similar in accordance with the creative act of God.
The apparent similarities that may be found between their various conceptions of God with the nature of God understood in Islam cannot be interpreted as evidence of identity of the One Universal God in their various conceptions of the nature of God; for each and every one of them serve and belongs to a different conceptual system. God described at this level as the Creator Sustainer, Cherisher of the world is known as 'rabb' only, and not as 'ilah'.
Islamic point of view, the Supreme Being mentioned or indicated in other religions refers only to the nature of God at the level of 'rububiyyah', not 'uluhiyyah'. At the level of 'uluhiyyah', God must be regarded as an object of worship (m'abud) who does not take any partner, rival or equal. It is absolutely wrong to associate or to attribute any likeness to Him.
ii. Tawhid as the Bedrock of Islam
True submission can only be built on the cornerstone of knowledge about the nature of God and that of man. This veritable submission is grounded on Islamic metaphysics with Revelation as its ontological ground. The central pillar on which this ontology rests is a strong faith in the unity of God or [tawhid]. This then is the acid test or furqan: criterion by which the truthfulness and falsity of a religion is determined. Tawhid thus clearly differentiates between submission in the religion of Islam and other religions whose systems of belief developed from misguided cultural traditions and pagan convictions and not from the millah of Prophet Ibrahim, 'alayhi as-salam, as some religions claim.
Islam is the only religion which affirms the unity of God by full submission to Him in the way perfected by His last Messenger, Prophet Muhammad [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam]. As the Prophet [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam] of Islam has clearly shown, the true affirmation, which proves ones' belief in God is to glorify, honour and submit to Him in the manner, He has approved. It is only this kind of perfected submission, which can rightly be called Islam. This unique aspect is only exclusive to Islam [al-Imran:19] and [al-Ma'idah:5]
The Qur'an makes clear that not any kind of submission can be accepted as true submission. The true submission and acceptable religion to God is the religion which emanates from the true conception of the unity of God. This conception of God [tawhid] will then determine the truthfulness and falsity of a religion, and at this point, diversity occurs between din of Islam and other religions, for the unity of God in Islam is perceived differently from the unity of God as perceived by other religions. The Qur'an explicitly points to this fact [al-Kafirun [109]: 1-6], [al-'Imran [3]: 18-20]
The religion of Islam does not consist of the belief in the oneness of God [tawhid] only, for Iblis [shaytan] also believes in the existence of God and knows and acknowledges Him as his Lord [rabb], yet he is deemed to have disbelieved. Belief in One God is insufficient in true religion, and that such belief guarantees security and salvation. Iblis, who believes in the One True God and knows and acknowledges Him as his Creator, Cherisher and sustainer, his rabb, is nevertheless a disbeliever [Kafir]. Although Iblis submits to God, yet he submits grudgingly and insolently, and his kufr is due to arrogance, disobedience and rebellion.
True submission to God therefore, includes the manner and the form of submission to God, as exemplified and perfected by the Last Prophet [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam]. Thus, the affirmation and verification of tawhid lies in the manner and in the form of submission that is prescribed by the teaching of Islam. Al-Attas clarifies the logical connection between tawhid and Islam, and points out why Islam comes to be the name of the religion by emphasizing that:
"The test of true affirmation of the Unity of God, then, is the form of submission to that God. It is only because the form of submission enacted by the religion that affirms the Unity of God is true to the verification of such affirmation that that particular religion is called Islam.
Islamic submission as mentioned in the Qur'an is not momentary or erratic. It is the action lived throughout the whole ethical life of mankind. It operates within the realm of the heart and manifested itself externally through the action of the body." [al-'Imran [3]: 85] [al-Nisa' [4]:125]
Al-Attas stresses that religious experience is held in the Qur'an as a return to fitrah, meaning original human nature [al-Rum [30:30]. This understanding adheres to the idea that man cannot escape from being in the state of living a din, since all nature submit to God's will. However, what makes submission in Islam different from submission in other religions is that, submission as prescribed in the Qur'an is willing, knowing or conscious, sincere and total submission to God's Will namely ÏeÑah which is ultimately tantamount to the true tawhid of God.
"Verily it is We who have revealed the book to thee in truth: so serve Allah, offering Him sincere devotion." [al-Zumar [39]:2]
Say: "Verily, I am commanded to serve Allah with sincere devotion. And I am commanded to be the first who submit to Allah in Islam." [al-Zumar [39]: 11, 12]
The Qur'an, therefore, not only projects the fundamental teachings of the true religion in a precise manner conveyed by all the Prophets of God, ['alayhim us-salam], but also mentions them in detail so as to demonstrate how the Messengers of God disseminated the true and proper submission [Islam] up to the last Prophet [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam]. [Hud [11]: 50] [Hud [11]: 61]
Thus the form of 'submission' that follows from this system of belief is called willing and knowing or conscious submission. That is why Islamic 'Aqidah stresses the importance of knowledge as opposed to the Sophists. It is on the basis of his interpretation of the two kinds of submission [i.e., Ïaw'an and karhan] that al-Attas reaches the conclusion that all other religions developed their systems of belief based upon their own cultural traditions which are not necessarily derived from the millah of the Prophet Ibrahim ['alayhi as-salam]. Thus the kind of submission practiced by these religions is regarded as "unwilling submission". [al-'Imran [3]: 85]
When we postulate the conclusion that Islam is the name of a particular religion, definition of religion and of submission, it does not imply that all non-Muslims are condemned, or that all those who claim to be Muslims will be saved. Also it does not mean that Islam rejects the practice of tolerance between religions. Islam acknowledges or tolerates the existence of other religions. Islam appreciates any dialogue and cooperation with other religions pertaining to matters of ethics and society. But on the theological or creedal matters like the nature of God, the nature of man, the soul, etc., Islam exerts its own authentic and firm stand. In this connection, al-Attas rightly explains that the nature of God as understood in Islam is fundamentally different from the nature of God understood in all other religions and worldviews. In fact he underlines true tolerance when he says that:
"Those who turn to God and follow His guidance are not necessarily meant to indicate only those who profess to adhere to the religion of Islam, just as those who profess to follow the religion of Islam are not all necessarily included among those who turn to God and follow His guidance. In this sense, Islam is not really 'exclusive', contrary to the assertion of William C. Chittick and those who agree with him!
Islam, in matters that are reflected within the horizontal or inter-personal dimension is inclusive. This dimension known as the changeable areas in the Religion of Islam, i.e., where the religion allows, and even promotes, flexibility so as to accommodate the needs of time and space. These changeable aspects of the religion are the social-based items, or items that are essential for the promotion of a decent, healthy, and happy social life. In general, all religions look to promote goodness and kindness, care and concern, for all and sundry in the world. In fact these universal values of the religions reflected within the horizontal or inter-personal dimension that shape the communal life and build the religious communities. Moreover, these universal values can relate and collate them up with the whole world, human and non-human.
i. Acceptance of Plurality in Human Societies
The concept of universalism in the religion of Islam manifests it self in inclusivist aspect of its teaching particularly in dealing with other religion adherents. Even though Islam is exclusive towards its unique tawhid, however the treatment is based on the humanity that is to make no distinction between all different nations as the creations of God. Therefore, there is no such thing to discriminate or degrade others since all are God's creations that receive blessings or graces from Him alone. In this respect, Islam comes out with several principles deal with the diversity of religion or belief as well as race and nations.
All of the Prophets of God, ['alayhim us-salam] disseminated the same straight path of tawhid, there is no difference between [Prophet] Muhammad [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam] and other Prophets, ['alayhim us-salam] and all Muslims have been ordered to believe in all of them alike. To make no distinction between the Prophets ['alayhim us salam] means not to hold some of them to be right and the others to be wrong; to recognize some to be the recipients of Divine revelation and the others not. All the prophets ['alayhim us-salam] sent by God invited men to the same Truth and to the same way. Hence, this proves the parallel teaching brought by all prophets that is the core message of tawhid [al-Baqarah: 260]. Propagation of faith is not the same as compulsion in religion. Islamic da'wah is laid down based on the concept of invitation [al-Nahl:125]. There are no such things like bribery, compulsion, threats, deception, manipulation and exploitation of the invitee's vulnerability such as hunger or illness.
Thus, the notion of plurality is not new in Islam. Though Islam encourages propagation of faith but it does not force people to believe in Allah. We read: 5:48 and 11:118. The ultimate reward or punishment for accepting or rejecting belief in Allah is deffered until the Day of Judgment. This value inculcates the attitude of being non-judgmental and accepting people, as they are human beings, given freedom to choose, but who are nevertheless answerable to their Creator.
Even before globalisation, it was Islam that stood for universal peace and brotherhood. It is with this spirit of universality which has always moved Muslim communities to treat minorities and people of other faith with respect and dignity. As such when the Jews were treated inhumanly in Europe, they progressed and prospered in the Islamic civilization.
The Muslims were obliged by the Shar'iah to honour the civil, communal and religious rights of other religious communities. The Qur'an and the Sunnah never closed the channels of religious dialogue, nor of cordial interaction with non-Muslims at the social -economic and cultural level. In fact, the Prophet [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam] and his Noble Companions exemplified excellent example in providing an environment of religious freedom and tolerance in the history forever. As stated by Asi that:
"The adherents of other religious traditions, particularly the Jews and the Christians, enjoyed religious and communal freedom as long as they did not attempt to undermine the Islamic polity or act with hostility towards Islam and Muslims. The protection of the lives, properties and honour of the Muslims living in the Islamic domain was laid down as a religious obligation for the Muslims. Such non-Muslim citizens of Islamic polity were known by the appellation: Ahl-al-Dhimmah"
In this manner, the Qur'an strictly prohibits coercion in matters of faith. We read:
"There is no compulsion in religion. Verily, the Right Path has become distinct from the wrong path. Whoever disbelieves in Taghut and believes in Allah, then has grasped the most trustworthy handhold that will never break. And Allah is the All-Hearer, All-Knower."
[al-Baqarah: 256].
Muslims' attitude in their interaction and co-existence with people of diverse religious traditions was further illustrated in the nature of agreement between them in the time of Khalif Amir al-M'uminin 'Umar, [Allah, be well pleased with him]. When Jerusalem submitted to 'Umar in 639 C.E he made the following covenant with the people of Jerusalem:
"In the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate.
This is the security which 'Umar, the servant of Allah, the Commander of the faithful, grants the people of Alia. He grants to all, whether sick or sound, security for their lives, their possessions, their churches and their crosses, and for all that concerns their religion. Their churches shall not be changed into dwelling places, nor destroyed; neither shall they or their appurtenances be in any way diminished, or the crosses of the inhabitants nor aught of their possessions, nor shall any constraint be put upon them in the matter of their faith, nor shall anyone of them be harmed."
In summary, a number of basic principles of relationship of Muslim towards others that is based on universalism of humanity has been systematically outlined by Jamal Badawi in his paper. It may represent the Muslims attitude towards non-Muslims. The most important principles are highlighted, such as faith in universal God that propagated in the teachings of all the Prophets ['alayhim us-salam] based on universal justice. This belief implies that all humans are equal before God in terms of their humanity, irrespective of their particular beliefs. Only God is the ultimate judge of any person's "theological correctness".
Different religions [faiths] perceive Truth differently and conceptions of that Truth may even be tangential, let alone identical. Islam is both exclusive and inclusive. As far as theological or creedal matters are concern, Islam is exclusive. The creedal matters pertaining to question of God, His nature or attributes, Muslims should not compromise with conception or perception of other religions, except in a very general rububiyyah manner. In other words, we cannot dilute the concept of God with that of other religions. As for moral and ethical values, the door is wide open for polite conversation, dialogue and cooperation. In fact, noble ethical principles of interpersonal relationship found in most religious teachings serve as source of guidance for human relationship. For the crux of all religions are peace, balance and harmony not violence and aggression.
[1] The idea of religious pluralism is a new concept of religious diversity coined by contemporary Western scholars and philosophers. To them, all religions of the world should be treated as the same in terms of their goals that is to reach the Truth or the Reality. However, the difference is every religion has unique approaches whether in Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism as well as Islam. According to them…"No one faith is perfect. All faiths are equally dear to their perspective votaries. What is wanted, therefore, is a living friendly contact among the followers of the great religions of the world and not a clash among them.". See, David Basinger, Religious Diversity: A Philosophical Assessment, [England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2002], 54.
[2] Frithjof Schuon, The Transcendent Unity of Religions [England: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1984], Introduction by Hutson Smith, xxii-xxiv.
[3] W. A. Wan Ahmad "Hikmah" No: 2, April-August 1998, 10.
[4] F. Abdullah, "An Analysis of the Concept of Islam Based on Al-Attas Approach" unpublished Ph. D. thesis, ISTAC, 1998, hereinafter cited as the Concept of Islam, 3.
Sayyad Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam [Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization [ISTAC], 1995,]11; hereinafter cited as Prolegomena. For his cogent arguments contradicting the views of the advocates of the transcendent unity of religions, see 7-10.
See, The Concept of Islam, chapter 2.
See H. Askari, Alone to Alone [UK: Seven Mirrors Publishing House Limited, 1991], 6. See also The Transcendent, xxii-xxiv
The Hadith clarifies that the disbelivers [kuffar] i. e., those who are not Muslims are in one category namely millat al-wahidah. See Muhammad ibn 'Isa, al-Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Tirmidhi al-Jami' al-ØaÍÊÍ [Madinah: Maktabah al-Salafiyyah, 1964], 4: 135
The Transcendent, xxii-xxiv. The unity is only in the sense of acknowledging God as the Lord [al-rabb], and not as the proper Object of worship [al-ilah]. See al-Attas, Prolegomena, 7-9.
The Transcendent, xii
See H. Askari, Alone to Alone, 6.
Sayyad Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam (Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization [ISTAC], 1995, 11; hereinafter cited as Prolegomena. For his cogent arguments contradicting the views of the advocates of the transcendent unity of religions, see 7-10.
See chapter 3 of this book on The Misconception of the Term Islam
Reification is the term used by Alfred Cantwell Smith to show that Islam undergoes the process of change. See, On Understanding Islam [The Netherlands: Mouton Publishers,1981],174
This is the established or permanent aspect of the religion of Islam. See al-'Aqa''id al-Nasafiyyah with the commentary of Taftazani, 1: 60-61 and also Prolegomena, 10.
The Concept of Islam, 233.
The form and the manner of the religion of Islam are fundamental and established therefore they are absolute and immutable. It was mentioned as the permanent aspect of Islam by Sayyid Qutb, in his, The Islamic Concept and Its Characteristics, tr. Muhammad M'uinuddin Siddiqui, American Trust Publications, USA, 1991, chapter three.
See Muhammad ibn 'Isa al-Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Tirmidhi al-Jami' al-ØaÍÊÍ [Madinah: Maktabah al-Salafiyyah, 1964], 4: 135; see also K. O. Kamaruzaman, Early Muslim Scholarship in Religions wissenschaft: The Works and Contributions of Abu RayÍen Muhammad, al-BÊrËnÊ, ISTAC, Kuala Lumpur, 2003, 80-81.
God is one, unique, eternal, existent Being; He is not a substance, not a body, not an accident, not limited to any direction, and not in any space (see Abu al-Hasan ibn Isma'il, al-'Ash'ari, al-Ibanah 'an Usul al-Diyanah [Haydarabad, 1948], 73.
Al-Attas , Prolegomena 53-54
Ibid., 9
Al-Attas shares the same idea with most of the Mutakallimun and especially the higher ÎËfis, in understanding the nature of God. Since knowledge of the nature of God is derived from the Qur'an, it is treated under the domain of what is commonly known as "revealed theology". Therefore, for al-Attas the conception of the nature of God in Islam is not derived from philosophical speculation.
Kitab Usul al-Din [Istanbul: Matba'at al-Dawlah, 1928], 73; Prolegomena, 12-13
Al-Attas, Prolegomena, 268. See also, The Metaphysics of Sabzawari, 479-485 Prolegomena, 240.
Cf. Abu al-Qasim al-Junayd, Rasa'il al-Junayd, E.J.W. Gibb Memorial Series, New Series, XX11, [Luzax, London 1976], 41. See also Prolegomena, 209.
Al-Attas , Prolegomena, 9
'Ali b. Abi al-Ñizz, al-Dimishqi, Sharh al-'Aqidah al-ÙaÍewiyyah. Beirut: Mu'assasat al-Risalah, 1987, 83-90.
Al-Attas, Prolegomena, 9
Ibid., 11
Ibid., 52
Ibid.,51, See also Isma'il l-Faruqi Islam and Other Faiths: The Islamic Foundation: The International Inst. Of Islamic Thought, 1998, 137-138
al-'Imran [3]: 85
See al-'Aqa'id al-Nasafiyyah with the commentary of Taftazani, 1: 60-61. See also Abu al-Mun'in Maymun ibn Muhammad al-Nasafi, T'abirat al-Adillah fi Usul al-Din, ed. Claude Salame [Dimishq: 1990), 1:12-5
Al-Attas, Islam and Secularism, 59-61.
For further clarification see K. O. Kamaruzaman, "Early Muslim Scholarship in Religion" swissenschaft, 14-19.
Prolegomena, 110.
See his seminar paper entitled "Islam and Confucianism: A Civilizational Dialogue" presented on 12-14 March at Diwan Tunku Canselor & Perdanasiswa University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1-12
See, K. O. Kamaruzaman , Early Muslim Scholarship in Religionswissenschaf, 11.
Isma'il l-Faruqi: Islam and Other Faiths, 143-146
All Prophets of Allah [salla Allahu 'alayhi wa sallam] propagated the teaching of tawhid, but their shari'ah were different.
Isma'il l-Faruqi: Islam and Other Faiths, 145 Ibid, 135-145,
Jamal Badawi, in his paper , Islam and Muslim: Image and Reality, Kuala Lumpur, 4-6 August 2004. International Institute for Muslim Unity, IIUM. 11.K. O. Kamaruzaman, "Early Muslim Scholarship in Religion" swissenschaft, 11-13
asi, Ghulam H. "Muslim Understanding of Other Religions", 25.
Ibid., 27, cf Thomas W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam (Lahore: S.M. Ashraf, 1961), 56-57
According to Jamal Badawi, in his paper, he finds out a number of principles that bound in Islamic foundation towards humanity in universalism in the principles as follows:
i- Universal Human Dignity
ii- Universal Justice
iii- Universal Human Brotherhood
iv- Prohibition of Compulsion in Faith
v- Peaceful Dialougue
See, Islam and Muslim: Image and Reality, 15-16.
DR FATIMAH ABDULLAH
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Name: |
Dr Fatimah Abdullah |
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Qualification: |
1) B.A (Hon.) in Usuluddin and Philosophy -National University, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia (1981) 2) Dip. of Education-National University, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, (1981) |
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Occupation: |
Assistant Professor |
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Publication: |
1) Text-book for on line education Programme (Islamic Aqidah 2001) 1) Al-Attas Exposition of the Fundamental Metaphysic of Islam, Journal of Islam in Asia, International Islamic University Malaysia, Issue No 1 June 2004 4) Module for Parenting and Family Management (2005) |
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Papers presentation: |
i. The Role of Women in Uniting the Ummah at international Conference on Muslim Unity in the 21st century: Opportunities and Challenges held on 1st –2nd October at Nikko Hotel, Kuala Lumpur |